Research and guides.
Literature reviews, protocol walk-throughs, and methodological notes from the VialBase team.
Bloodwork Monitoring Guide for Peptide Research
Which blood tests to run before, during, and after peptide protocols — covering the top 10 most-used compounds.
Read the full piece →Copper Peptides for Skin and Healing
How GHK-Cu works, what the copper does, and the evidence for skin aging, wound healing, and hair growth.
Growth Hormone Secretagogues Compared
A detailed comparison of CJC-1295, Ipamorelin, GHRP-2, GHRP-6, and Tesamorelin — mechanisms, pros and cons, side effect profiles, stacking recommendations, and how to choose for your goal.
GLP-1 Agonists Compared: Semaglutide vs Tirzepatide
A direct comparison of semaglutide and tirzepatide — covering mechanism differences, clinical efficacy data, side effect profiles, dosing schedules, and how to think about which compound fits a given research context.
Research Peptides: Legal Status Guide
A factual overview of the legal and regulatory status of research peptides in the United States and internationally — covering FDA frameworks, WADA prohibition, and purchasing considerations.
NAD+ and Longevity Peptides
How NAD+ drives aging biology, what mitochondrial-derived peptides do, and where Epithalon fits in the longevity peptide landscape.
Neuroprotective Peptides Overview
What neuroprotection means, how Semax, Selank, Dihexa, Cortexin, and Cerebrolysin work, and what the evidence shows for cognitive and neurological applications.
Oral vs Injectable Peptides
A practical comparison of oral and injectable peptide administration — covering bioavailability, enzymatic degradation, which compounds have viable oral options, and when each route makes sense.
Understanding Peptide Cycling
Why cycling matters for peptide protocols — receptor desensitization, on/off patterns by compound class, how to design a cycle, and signs you need a break.
Peptide Safety and Side Effects
An honest, class-by-class overview of peptide side effects, contraindications, and safety considerations — without fear-mongering, without minimizing real risks.
Peptide Sourcing: What to Look For
How to evaluate peptide suppliers, read a Certificate of Analysis, verify purity, and avoid common red flags.
Peptide Stacking 101
A practical framework for combining peptides — covering the rationale for stacking, common stack categories, timing considerations, synergy vs. redundancy, and how to evaluate a combination before committing to it.
How to Store Peptides Properly
A complete guide to peptide storage — covering lyophilized vs reconstituted peptides, temperature requirements, light sensitivity, stability timelines, and signs of degradation.
Peptides for Injury Recovery
Which peptides to use for which injury types — tendons, ligaments, systemic tissue repair, and wounds — with stacking strategies, timing, injection approaches, and realistic expectations.
State of Peptides — Q1 2026
Quarterly report covering the peptide research landscape: regulatory shifts, compound spotlights, research developments, vendor trends, and market outlook for Q1 2026.
Subcutaneous Injection Technique Guide
Step-by-step guide to subcutaneous (SubQ) injection technique — site selection, needle gauge, injection angle, sterile procedure, site rotation, and disposal.
Thymic Peptides and Immune Support
How Thymosin Alpha-1, Thymalin, KPV, and other thymic peptides modulate immune function and what the evidence shows.
How to Reconstitute Peptides
Step-by-step guide to reconstituting lyophilized peptides with bacteriostatic water.
Molecular signaling of therapeutic peptides in orthopaedic medicine — PI3K/Akt, mTOR, MAPK, TGF-β, AMPK pathways
Growth hormone secretagogues (CJC-1295, ipamorelin) activate IGF-1 signaling
Therapeutic peptides: molecular signaling networks in orthopaedic medicine
TB-500 and TB-4 promote angiogenesis and tissue repair in preclinical models
Recent Tesamorelin Research
Ongoing investigation of tesamorelin applications beyond HIV lipodystrophy
Injectable Peptide Therapy in Regenerative Medicine and Sports Performance
Reviews BPC-157, TB-4, TB-500, CJC-1295 + ipamorelin, tesamorelin, and GHK-Cu
Therapeutic peptides in orthopaedic injuries — CJC-1295 + Ipamorelin for IGF-1 signaling and satellite cell repair
CJC-1295 + ipamorelin activate IGF-1 signaling and satellite cell repair
Therapeutic peptides in orthopaedic injuries — narrative review of BPC-157, TB-500, CJC-1295 + Ipamorelin, Tesamorelin, GHK-Cu
CJC-1295 + ipamorelin activate IGF-1 signaling and satellite cell repair
Therapeutic Peptides in Orthopaedics: Applications, Challenges, and Future Directions
Selank identified among neuroactive peptides enhancing BDNF and HGF/c-Met pathways
Body composition, hepatic fat, metabolic, and safety outcomes of Tesamorelin, a GHRH analogue, in HIV-associated lipodystrophy: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
5 RCTs included; tesamorelin vs placebo in HIV adults
A revised model of nuclear actin import: Importin 9 competes with cofilin, profilin, and RanGTP for actin binding
Importin 9 competes with cofilin, profilin, and RanGTP for actin binding
Pharmacologic Treatments for the Preservation of Lean Body Mass During Weight Loss
Tesamorelin is a GHRH agonist being explored for muscle preservation during weight loss
Pharmacologic Treatments for the Preservation of Lean Body Mass During Weight Loss
Weight loss from any method is accompanied by lean body mass loss
A Case Report of a Multisystemic Immune-Related Adverse Event Caused by Sintilimab in Combination With Thymosin Alpha-1
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma patient developed multisystem irAEs after sintilimab + Ta1
The Tβ4-Ac-SDKP Axis in Kidney Disease: Renoprotective Efficacy Review
Tβ4 and its metabolite Ac-SDKP act as dynamic mediators of renal injury and repair
Neoadjuvant serplulimab + SOX + thymalfasin for stage III G/EGJ adenocarcinoma
30% pathological complete response (pCR) rate
Changes in Oral Mucosa Associated with Melanotan II Injections: A Case Report
Patient self-administered Melanotan II injections for 64 days for tanning
MOTS-c establishes steroidogenic readiness in adrenal tissue — P2ry4 upregulation and metabolic priming
MOTS-c regulates cellular metabolism through AMPK and mTOR signaling
Thymosin alpha1-induced secretion of the IL-15/RA complex by THP-1-derived dendritic cells restrains HIV latency in vitro
Ta1 induced IL-15/IL-15RA complex secretion from THP-1-derived dendritic cells
Pathophysiological aspects of primary Sjogren's disease: From epithelial activation to systemic autoimmunity
Sjogren's disease involves epithelial dysregulation, innate immune activation, and adaptive immune response
GHK-Cu Hydrogel Wound Healing Study
GHK-Cu-loaded hydrogels enhance wound healing in animal models
A new era of doping? Use of peptide and peptide-analog drugs in recreational and professional sport and bodybuilding: a critical review
Ipamorelin identified as one of the most popular growth hormone secretagogues in sport
A new era of doping? Use of peptide and peptide-analog drugs in recreational and professional sport and bodybuilding: a critical review
CJC-1295 identified among most popular GH-releasing peptides in sport
IL-15 Plus Thymosin alpha1 Reduces Senescent Hepatic CD8+ T Cells in HCC via PI3K/AKT Suppression
IL-15 + Ta1 combination suppressed tumor growth and prolonged survival in aged HCC mice
Thymosin alpha1 improves the outcomes of patients with HBV-related ACLF by restoring immune balance
Ta1 + SMT significantly increased 90-day transplant-free survival vs SMT alone
Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Induces Autophagy and Cytotoxicity in Renal Cell Carcinoma via SIRT3-Dependent Signaling Pathway
VIP (0-50 microM) exhibits dose-dependent cytotoxicity in VPAC1-expressing RCC cells
NAD+ supplementation attenuates hypoxia-exacerbated oral mucosal inflammation via lactate metabolic reprogramming
Acute hypoxia activates Wnt/beta-catenin --> HIF-1alpha --> LDHA --> accelerated lactate synthesis
Mitochondrial Calcium Dysregulation and Targeted Therapies in Heart Failure
Heart failure characterized by mitochondrial calcium dysregulation
NAD+ deficiency from tacrolimus-suppressed IDO1 promotes M1 macrophage polarization and kidney injury
Tacrolimus suppresses IDO1, blocking tryptophan-to-kynurenine conversion
Elamipretide + H151 preserves alveolar-capillary architecture in experimental acute lung injury
Elamipretide (ELM) improved redox status and reduced mitochondrial leak in LPS-induced ALI
Migraine in pediatric population: the role of biochemical markers including VIP
VIP is a biochemical biomarker for migraine in pediatric populations
Real-World Effectiveness and Safety of Tirzepatide, Semaglutide, and Liraglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity without Diabetes: A Comparative Study
All three GLP-1 RAs produced significant weight loss and waist circumference reduction at 36 weeks
Impact of GLP-1RA Use on Perioperative Clinical Outcomes of Posterior Cervical Spinal Fusion
737 GLP-1RA patients vs 18,882 controls undergoing posterior cervical fusion
Are serum MOTS-c levels and MOTS-c m.1382A>C polymorphism related to polycystic ovary syndrome?
MOTS-c is associated with reduced insulin resistance and obesity
Incretin Therapies in Binge Eating Disorder: A Systematic Review
12 studies met inclusion criteria evaluating GLP-1 RAs in BED
Obesity Pharmacotherapy Reimagined: The Era of Multi-Receptor Agonists and Next-Generation Metabolic Modulators
Multi-receptor agonists (dual and triple) represent a paradigm shift in obesity treatment
Kisspeptin-10 Promotes Hormone Secretion, Ovarian Follicles Development and Fecundity via PI3K/AKT/ERK Signal Pathway in Mice
KP-10 enhanced P4 and E2 hormone synthesis and secretion
Relationship between kisspeptin-10, neurokinin B and dynorphin A in the course of normal and delayed puberty in ewes
KP-10 and NKB concentrations positively correlated with age in both singleton and twin ewes
Kisspeptin-10 attenuates pulmonary arterial hypertension via restoration of mitochondrial function in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells
KP-10 attenuates PAH via GPR54 receptor in SU5416/hypoxia mouse model
Drug Repurposing in Alzheimer's Disease: Emerging Therapeutic Strategies and Promising Candidates
Elamipretide identified as drug repurposing candidate for Alzheimer's disease
Should Bremelanotide Be Considered for the Treatment of Sexual Arousal and Desire Disorders in Men?
Argues bremelanotide should be considered for male sexual arousal and desire disorders
Multi-omic Profiling Reveals Retatrutide Alleviates Adipose Tissue Fibrosis via Metabolic Reprogramming and Tissue Repair
Retatrutide reduces adipose tissue fibrosis through metabolic reprogramming
Acupuncture regulates gut microbiota and metabolites in a rat model of chronic migraine
Acupuncture modulated serum VIP levels alongside 5-HT and CGRP in chronic migraine rats
Mitochondria-Targeted Liposomes Boost Thermogenesis for Adipose Tissue Regulation
Developed SS-31-conjugated cationic liposomes (AE@PEP-Lip) for adipose mitochondrial targeting
Health-Related Quality of Life and Work-Related Outcomes in People with Obesity Treated with Tirzepatide
Tirzepatide users reported higher SF-36v2 scores than non-medication users
Safety and Efficacy of Approved and Unapproved Peptide Therapies for Musculoskeletal Injuries and Athletic Performance
AOD-9604 among unapproved peptides marketed directly to patients
Comparative Proteomic Analysis of the Secretome of Control and BRAF/MEK Inhibitor-Resistant Melanoma Cells
Thymosin Beta-4 identified in secretome of BRAF/MEK inhibitor-resistant melanoma cells
Safety and Efficacy of Approved and Unapproved Peptide Therapies for Musculoskeletal Injuries and Athletic Performance
Sermorelin is among 12 peptides reviewed for musculoskeletal applications
Safety and Efficacy of Approved and Unapproved Peptide Therapies for Musculoskeletal Injuries and Athletic Performance
BPC-157 demonstrates favorable tissue repair outcomes in animal models
MASH and Liver Fibrosis: Clinical Trials to Watch
Semaglutide received conditional FDA approval for MASH following positive histological responses
Cost-Effectiveness of Incretin Therapies: A Canadian Lens on Diabetes, Obesity, and Emerging Indications
GLP-1 receptor agonists and dual agonists (semaglutide, tirzepatide) are now among Canada's costliest outpatient drug classes
GLP-1 Receptor Agonist Use and Wound Outcomes After Free Flap Breast Reconstruction
GLP-1 users had significantly lower composite wound complication rates than non-users (9.0% vs 17.1%, p = 0.002) after free flap breast reconstruction
Tesamorelin for Cognition in HIV-associated Neurocognitive Disorder
Trial Summary Phase 2 trial evaluating tesamorelin a synthetic GHRH analogue for cognitive improvement in HIV-positive adults with mild cognitive impairment. Tesamorelin is FDA-approved for HIV-associated lipodystrophy reducing visceral fat but has…
A Study of Elamipretide in Participants With Barth Syndrome (TAZPOWER)
Trial Summary TAZPOWER was a pivotal trial of elamipretide in Barth syndrome, a rare X-linked genetic disorder caused by mutations in the tafazzin gene, leading to abnormal cardiolipin remodeling and mitochondrial dysfunction.…
Trial of Elamipretide in Participants With Primary Mitochondrial Myopathy (MMPOWER-3)
Trial Summary MMPOWER-3 was a pivotal Phase 3 trial of elamipretide SS-31, Bendavia, MTP-131 for primary mitochondrial myopathy. Elamipretide is a mitochondria-targeting tetrapeptide that concentrates in the inner mitochondrial membrane and stabilizes…
Semaglutide Effects on Heart Disease and Stroke in Patients Who Are Overweight or Obese (SELECT)
Trial Summary SELECT was a landmark cardiovascular outcomes trial CVOT evaluating semaglutide 2.4 mg in overweight/obese adults with established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease but without diabetes. This was the first trial to demonstrate…
A Study of Tirzepatide in Participants With Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Obesity (SURMOUNT-OSA)
Trial Summary SURMOUNT-OSA evaluated tirzepatide for moderate-to-severe obstructive sleep apnea in adults with obesity. OSA severity is closely tied to body weight, particularly visceral and upper airway fat deposition. This trial tested…
A Research Study to See How Well Semaglutide Works in People With Non-alcoholic Steatohepatitis (ESSENCE)
Trial Summary ESSENCE is a pivotal Phase 3 trial evaluating semaglutide 2.4 mg the obesity dose for treatment of NASH with liver fibrosis. This is one of the most closely watched liver…
A Study of Tirzepatide in Participants With Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction and Obesity (SUMMIT)
Trial Summary SUMMIT was a pivotal Phase 3 trial evaluating tirzepatide dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist in patients with HFpEF and obesity. HFpEF with obesity is a phenotype driven by metabolic dysfunction, adipose…
Semaglutide in Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease and Overweight or Obesity (FLOW)
Trial Summary This trial potentially part of the FLOW program evaluates semaglutide's renoprotective effects in patients with CKD who are overweight or obese. Note: The larger FLOW trial NCT03819153 already showed positive…
Effect of Semaglutide on Ovulation and Reproductive Outcomes in PCOS
Trial Summary Phase 3 trial investigating semaglutide's ability to restore ovulatory cycles in women with PCOS. PCOS is the most common cause of anovulatory infertility, and insulin resistance/hyperinsulinemia are key drivers. GLP-1…
Kisspeptin for Isolated Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism (IHH)
Trial Summary Phase 1 trial evaluating kisspeptin as a diagnostic and therapeutic tool in isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. IHH is caused by deficient GnRH secretion or action, leading to absent puberty and infertility.…
A Study of Retatrutide in Participants With Type 2 Diabetes, Obesity, and Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Trial Summary Phase 3 trial evaluating retatrutide in a triple-comorbidity population: T2D + obesity + OSA. This study tests whether the triple-agonist peptide can simultaneously address glycemic control, weight loss, and sleep…
A Study of Retatrutide in Participants With Obesity and Knee Osteoarthritis
Trial Summary Phase 3 trial evaluating retatrutide triple GLP-1/GIP/glucagon receptor agonist in patients with obesity and symptomatic knee osteoarthritis. Obesity is a major modifiable risk factor for OA progression, and weight loss…
NAD+ / Nicotinamide Riboside (NR) for Age-Related Functional Decline
Trial Summary Phase 2 trial evaluating NAD+ precursor supplementation nicotinamide riboside for age-related functional decline. NAD+ is a critical coenzyme for cellular energy metabolism, DNA repair via sirtuins/PARPs, and mitochondrial function. NAD+…
DehydraTECH-CBD + DehydraTECH-Semaglutide Combination Phase 1b in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes
Trial Summary Phase 1b, randomized, open-label, active-controlled, parallel, multiple-dose study comparing the safety, pharmacokinetics, and efficacy of DehydraTECH-enhanced oral Semaglutide and cannabidiol CBD alone and in combination against Rybelsus and Tirzepatide in…
Thymosin Alpha-1 as Immune Adjuvant for COVID-19 Vaccination
Trial Summary Phase 1 trial evaluating Thymosin Alpha-1 Ta1 as an immune adjuvant to enhance COVID-19 vaccine responses. Ta1 is a 28-amino-acid thymic peptide that modulates dendritic cell maturation, T-cell differentiation, and…
A Study of Retatrutide in Participants With Obesity and Chronic Low Back Pain
Trial Summary Phase 3 trial investigating retatrutide for obesity-associated chronic low back pain CLBP. Chronic low back pain is the leading cause of disability worldwide, and obesity significantly worsens spinal loading, disc…
A Study of Tirzepatide in Participants With Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease With Alcohol Component (MetALD)
Trial Summary Phase 2 trial evaluating tirzepatide for MetALD, a newly defined category in the updated MASLD/MASH nomenclature that captures patients with metabolic liver disease who also have significant alcohol consumption. This…
A Study of Semaglutide in Early Alzheimer's Disease
Trial Summary Phase 2 study evaluating oral or subcutaneous semaglutide in patients with early Alzheimer's disease. This trial builds on epidemiological data and preclinical evidence suggesting GLP-1 receptor agonists may have neuroprotective…
Kisspeptin Administration in Post-COVID Neuroendocrine Dysfunction
Trial Summary Phase 1 trial investigating kisspeptin for post-COVID neuroendocrine dysfunction. Long COVID has been associated with hypothalamic-pituitary axis disruption, including hypogonadism, menstrual irregularity, and fatigue potentially driven by GnRH neuron dysfunction.…
Elamipretide for Healthy Aging and Mitochondrial Function
Trial Summary Phase 2 trial investigating elamipretide for age-related decline in mitochondrial function. This represents a bold expansion from rare disease Barth syndrome to healthy aging, testing whether mitochondrial peptide therapy can…
BPC-157 for Acute Hamstring Strain Repair
Trial Summary This is a landmark Phase 2 trial as one of the first formal clinical studies of BPC-157 Body Protection Compound-157 in humans. BPC-157 is a pentadecapeptide derived from human gastric…
GHK-Cu (Copper Peptide) for Acute Wound Healing
Trial Summary Phase 2 trial evaluating GHK-Cu glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine copper complex for acute wound healing. GHK-Cu is a naturally occurring tripeptide-copper complex found in human plasma, saliva, and urine that declines with age.…
ALN-2232 Phase 1/2 in Obesity, Alone and Co-Initiated with Tirzepatide
Trial Summary Phase 1/2 trial evaluating ALN-2232 — an RNAi therapeutic from Alnylam Pharmaceuticals — as a new pharmacological approach to obesity, both as monotherapy and co-initiated with Tirzepatide. Alnylam's hypothesis is…
TB-500 (Thymosin Beta-4) for Cardiovascular Disease / ASCVD
Trial Summary Phase 1/2 trial evaluating TB-500 a synthetic fragment of Thymosin Beta-4 for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Thymosin Beta-4 is a naturally occurring 43-amino-acid peptide involved in tissue repair, anti-inflammation, and angiogenesis.…
Pharmacogenomics of GLP-1 Receptor Agonists: Precision Medicine in the Age of Ozempic and Mounjaro
Inter-individual variability in GLP-1 RA response is large and clinically meaningful — some patients lose >20% body weight while others lose <5%; nausea tolerance varies just as widely
Case Report: Gastric Retention Induced by Tirzepatide in a Patient Undergoing Gastroscopy
42-year-old female on weekly subcutaneous tirzepatide for 1 month developed gastric retention discovered during painless gastroscopy despite a standard 12-hour fast
Melanotan II nasal spray: a possible risk factor for oral mucosal malignant melanoma?
22-year-old female developed oral mucosal malignant melanoma after Melanotan II nasal spray use
The Antioxidant Tetrapeptide Epitalon Enhances Delayed Wound Healing in an in Vitro Model of Diabetic Retinopathy
Epitalon enhanced wound healing in diabetic retinopathy cell model
Epitalon dose-dependent telomere extension through hTERT and telomerase upregulation; ALT activation in cancer cells
Dose-dependent telomere length extension in normal epithelial and fibroblast cells
Melanocortin receptors in inflammatory disorders: pharmacology and therapeutic relevance
MC1R-MC5R regulate diverse functions from pigmentation to immune modulation
Bioactive Peptides and Proteins in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Neuroprotective Roles
Semax identified among key neuroprotective peptides (alongside NGF, BDNF, GDNF, Exendin-4)
The Effect of Peptide Semax on Intracellular Calcium Dynamics in Rat Brain Neurons
Semax (1 microM) significantly increased frequency of spontaneous calcium oscillations in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons
ACTH 4-10 (Semax) Regulating the Inflammatory Cascade in Spinal Cord Injury
Semax showed neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties in SCI
Exploring the Role of Tripeptides in Wound Healing and Skin Regeneration: A Comprehensive Review
GHK-based formulations enhance fibroblast migration, ECM remodeling, collagen/elastin synthesis
Host Defense Peptides with Immunoregulatory Mechanisms in IBD
KPV grouped with host defense peptides (HDPs) for IBD treatment
Strategies for Treating Sexual Health Concerns After Breast and Gynecologic Cancer
Sexual dysfunction is common but underrecognized after breast/gynecologic cancer treatment
GHK Tripeptide Gene Regulation and Biological Activity
GHK modulates expression of thousands of human genes
The Potential of Semax and Its Derivative for Correcting Pathological Impairments in Alzheimer's Disease Model
Semax and derivative improved cognitive function in APPswe/PS1dE9/Blg mice
SIPPC oral peptide delivery platform: KPV conjugate for colitis and acute lung injury
Self-Immolative Polymer-Peptide Conjugate (SIPPC) technology for oral peptide delivery
The growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a agonists, anamorelin and ipamorelin, inhibit cisplatin-induced weight loss in ferrets
Ipamorelin (1-3 mg/kg IP) inhibited cisplatin-induced weight loss in ferrets
Recommended Tool Compounds for the Melanocortin Receptor (MCR) G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)
Comprehensive characterization of melanocortin receptor subtypes MC1R-MC5R
Retatrutide Phase 2 Trial in MASLD — Liver Fat Reduction with Triple Agonist Therapy
Retatrutide reduced liver fat by >80% at highest dose
Tirzepatide for Weight Management after Withdrawal — the SURMOUNT-4 Randomized Clinical Trial
Continued tirzepatide maintained 25.3% weight loss at 88 weeks
Tirzepatide for the Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Obesity (SURMOUNT-OSA)
Tirzepatide reduced AHI by ~50-60% in obstructive sleep apnea
Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial
24.2% mean body weight loss with retatrutide 12mg at 48 weeks
Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity in People with Type 2 Diabetes (SURMOUNT-2)
14.7% mean weight loss with tirzepatide 15mg at 72 weeks in T2D patients
Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT)
20% reduction in MACE (major adverse cardiovascular events) with semaglutide 2.4mg
Mitochondrial-derived peptides in aging and age-related diseases
MOTS-c and humanin decline with aging
MOTS-c is an effective target for treating metabolic dysfunction: first-in-human clinical trial
First-in-human study of MOTS-c shows improved insulin sensitivity
Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial
Retatrutide 12mg produced 24.2% mean weight loss at 48 weeks
Retatrutide, a GIP, GLP-1 and Glucagon Receptor Agonist, for People with Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo and Active-Comparator Controlled, Parallel-Group, Phase 2 Trial
HbA1c reduction up to -2.02% with retatrutide 12mg
Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT)
20% reduction in MACE with semaglutide 2.4mg in obesity without diabetes
Tirzepatide for the Treatment of Obesity in People with Type 2 Diabetes (SURMOUNT-2)
Tirzepatide 15mg produced 14.7% weight loss in T2DM patients
Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1)
22.5% mean body weight loss with tirzepatide 15mg at 72 weeks
Effect of Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Liraglutide on Weight Loss (STEP 8)
Semaglutide 2.4mg achieved 15.8% weight loss vs 6.4% with liraglutide 3.0mg at 68 weeks
Two-Year Effects of Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 5)
Semaglutide 2.4mg produced sustained 15.2% weight loss over 2 years
Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1)
Tirzepatide 15mg produced 22.5% mean weight loss at 72 weeks
GIP and GLP-1 as treatment targets in type 2 diabetes and obesity: a dual incretin perspective
Dual GIP/GLP-1 agonism produces greater weight loss than GLP-1 alone
Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 1)
14.9% mean body weight loss with semaglutide 2.4mg vs 2.4% placebo at 68 weeks
Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2)
Tirzepatide 15mg achieved HbA1c reduction of -2.46% vs -1.86% for semaglutide 1mg
MOTS-c is an Exercise-Induced Mitochondrial-Encoded Regulator of Age-Dependent Physical Decline and Muscle Homeostasis
MOTS-c translocates to the nucleus during metabolic stress and exercise
The Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide MOTS-c: A Player in Exceptional Longevity?
MOTS-c variant m.1382A>C associated with exceptional longevity in Japanese men
Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 1)
Semaglutide 2.4mg produced 14.9% mean weight loss vs 2.4% placebo
Effect of Continued Weekly Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Placebo on Weight Loss Maintenance in Adults With Overweight or Obesity (STEP 4)
Continued semaglutide maintained 17.4% total weight loss at 68 weeks
Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2)
All tirzepatide doses superior to semaglutide 1mg for HbA1c reduction
Bremelanotide: new drug for the treatment of hypoactive sexual desire disorder
Comprehensive review of bremelanotide pharmacology and clinical program
Bremelanotide for the Treatment of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder — RECONNECT Phase III Trials
Bremelanotide 1.75mg SC significantly increased sexual desire vs placebo
A pro-diabetogenic mtDNA polymorphism in the mitochondrial-derived peptide, MOTS-c
m.1382A>C polymorphism causes K14Q substitution in MOTS-c peptide
Bremelanotide for Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial (RECONNECT)
Bremelanotide significantly improved sexual desire in premenopausal women with HSDD
Oral Semaglutide versus Subcutaneous Liraglutide and Placebo in Type 2 Diabetes (PIONEER 4)
Oral semaglutide 14mg noninferior to subcutaneous liraglutide 1.8mg for HbA1c
Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data
GHK-Cu's gene expression effects support regenerative healing over scar formation
BPC 157 and Nitric Oxide System
BPC-157 modulates the nitric oxide (NO) system in a context-dependent manner
NAD+ Decline in Aging: Sirtuin, PARP, and Mitochondrial Mechanisms
NAD+ declines ~50% between ages 40-60 in humans
Brain-gut Axis and Pentadecapeptide BPC 157: Theoretical and Practical Implications
BPC-157 modulates dopaminergic and serotonergic systems
Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SUSTAIN-6)
26% reduction in MACE with semaglutide vs placebo
Thymosin beta 4 speeds corneal wound healing and decreases inflammation in the clinical setting
RGN-259 (Tβ4 eye drops) advanced through clinical trials for corneal healing
GHK Peptide as a Natural Modulator of Multiple Cellular Pathways in Skin Regeneration
GHK-Cu modulates expression of 4,665 human genes at 1 micromolar concentration
The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance
Discovery paper for MOTS-c as a mitochondrial-derived peptide
AOD-9604 stimulates proteoglycan synthesis in chondrocytes
AOD-9604 stimulated proteoglycan synthesis in chondrocytes
GHK peptide as a natural modulator of multiple cellular pathways in skin regeneration
GHK-Cu modulates expression of over 4,000 genes
A mitochondrial-derived peptide, MOTS-c, acts as an insulin sensitizer in vivo
MOTS-c is the first mitochondrial-derived peptide shown to regulate metabolism
Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 enhances the growth hormone receptor expression in tendon fibroblasts
BPC-157 increases growth hormone receptor expression in tendon fibroblasts
Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157-NO-system relation
BPC-157 interacts with the nitric oxide system as a key mechanism of action
GHK and DNA: resetting the human genome to health
GHK reverses gene expression signatures associated with COPD
Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 in trials for inflammatory bowel disease (PL-10, PLD-116, PL 14736, Pliva, Croatia). Full length article
BPC-157 promotes tendon-to-bone healing and tendon healing
The human tripeptide GHK-Cu in prevention of oxidative stress and degenerative conditions of aging
GHK-Cu levels decline with aging from 200 ng/mL to 80 ng/mL
Ipamorelin for postoperative ileus: a phase 3 study
Ipamorelin accelerated GI recovery after abdominal surgery
Thymosin β4, a multi-functional actin-sequestering protein involved in tissue repair
Comprehensive review of Tβ4 tissue repair mechanisms
Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 (PL 14736) Improves Ligament Healing in the Rat
BPC-157 significantly accelerated medial collateral ligament healing in rats
Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 (PL 14736) improves ligament healing in the rat
BPC-157 significantly improved medial collateral ligament healing in rats
Glucagon receptor agonism in the treatment of obesity and diabetes
Glucagon receptor agonism increases energy expenditure via thermogenesis
Selank GABAergic and Enkephalin Mechanism Summary
Selank allosterically modulates GABA-A receptors for anxiolytic effect
Tripeptide-copper complex GHK-Cu (II) transiently improved miniaturized hair follicles and hair density
GHK-Cu stimulated hair growth in alopecia patients
Effects of a growth hormone-releasing hormone analog on endogenous GH pulsatility and insulin sensitivity in healthy older adults
GHRH analog increased GH pulse amplitude in older adults
Prolonged Stimulation of Growth Hormone (GH) and Insulin-Like Growth Factor I Secretion by CJC-1295, a Long-Acting Analog of GH-Releasing Hormone, in Healthy Adults
Single dose of CJC-1295 DAC elevated GH and IGF-1 for 6-14 days
Growth hormone-releasing hormone analogs: chemistry and pharmacology
Reviews GHRH analog development including CJC-1295
AOD-9604 Phase IIb Obesity Trial and Development History
Phase IIb RCT with 300+ patients for oral AOD-9604 (1mg/day)
Synergistic effects of GHRH and GHRP on GH release in humans
GHRH + GHRP combination produces synergistic GH release
Safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of single doses of ipamorelin in healthy volunteers
Ipamorelin produced dose-dependent GH release in healthy humans
Thymosin beta4 activates integrin-linked kinase and promotes cardiac cell migration, survival and cardiac repair
Thymosin beta-4 promotes cardiac cell survival after ischemia
An evaluation of the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of bremelanotide administered by intranasally and subcutaneously in healthy male and female volunteers
Bremelanotide effective via both intranasal and subcutaneous routes
Khavinson Epithalon/Epithalamin Longevity Research Overview
15+ years of human studies with epithalamin/epitalon in elderly patients
Thymosin beta 4 promotes corneal wound healing and decreases inflammation in vivo following alkali injury
Tβ4 accelerated corneal wound healing after alkali burn
The GH secretagogue ipamorelin counteracts glucocorticoid-induced decrease in bone formation of adult rats
Ipamorelin reversed glucocorticoid-induced bone loss in rats
Melanocortin receptor agonists, penile erection, and sexual motivation: human studies with Melanotan II
Melanotan II (parent compound of PT-141) induced erections in men
Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue
Ipamorelin selectively releases GH without affecting cortisol or prolactin